The 4 main types of reasoning (and their characteristics)

Reason or the ability to reason is one of the most valued cognitive abilities throughout history, having been considered in ancient times as one of characteristics that separate us from other animals and being often confronted with emotion (although emotion and reason are actually deeply interrelated).

But although the concept of reason is often taken as universal and unique, it is necessary to take into account that there is no single way or mechanism to reason, being able to find different types of reasoning depending on how the information is obtained and processed. It is about some of these different types of reasoning that we are going to talk about throughout this article.

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What is reasoning?

We understand reasoning as the product of a set of complex cognitive skills through which we are able to relate and link different information in a structured way, a link that allows establishing different strategies, arguments and conclusions based on said structuring of the information.

Reasoning allows us to elaborate new information and ideas based on a set of rules, something that allows us establish and form elements such as thoughts, beliefs, theories, abstract ideas, techniques or strategies. It also allows us to find the resolution of problems or situations that we encounter and the search for the most optimal methods.

Likewise, reasoning would not be possible without the existence of different mental faculties such as the capacity for association, attention, sensory perception, memory or the ability to plan or inhibit our responses both cognitively and behavioral. Thus, although it is and is considered a cognitive capacity, it would not be possible without the existence of many others on which it is based. We are not facing a basic ability but rather one of the higher or high-level cognitive abilities.

Main types of reasoning

Although the concept of reasoning may seem simple, the truth is that as with the intelligence to define it in a clear and delimited way (without mixing it with other concepts) is complexity. The truth is that reasoning itself is difficult to study as a whole, often dividing into different processes that give rise to different types of reasoning. Among them, the following stand out, the first three being the most recognized and fundamental.

1. Deductive reasoning

One of the main types of reasoning is the so-called deductive reasoning, which and as its name suggests is the type of cognitive process we use to arrive at a deduction.

This type of thinking is based on the belief in a universal premise or statement to reach a conclusion for each particular case. Thus, it goes from the general to the particular, being able to make conclusions for a specific case based on the assumption or deduction based on what we consider globally true.

He often uses logic to do so, being common to use syllogisms, inferences and linked propositions to reach a concrete conclusion. Deductive thinking can be categorical (a conclusion is drawn from two premises considered valid), proportional (one acts from two premises one of which is necessary for the other to occur) or disjunctive (two opposite premises are confronted in order to draw a conclusion that eliminates one of they).

It is frequently the type of reasoning that stereotypes follow, which lead us to think that by being part of a collective or profession to which certain characteristics have been attributed a person is going to have a specific behavior (be it good or bad).

It is common for the mere deduction to trigger judgments, arguments and beliefs that do not conform to reality. For example, we can think that water hydrates, then since the sea is made of water, sea water will hydrate us (when in reality it would cause dehydration).

2. Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning is that thought process in which you start from particular information to reach a general conclusion. It would be the inverse process to that of deduction: we observe one particular case after another so that through experience we can determine a more generalized conclusion. Is about a less logical and more probabilistic type of reasoning than above.

Inductive reasoning may be incomplete (that is, only a series of concrete cases are included and no others to establish the conclusions) or complete (including all particular cases observed).

It is usually a much more used method than it seems when making decisions in our day to day, being generally what we use to predict the future consequences of our actions or what may happen.

It is also often linked to the attribution of causes for the phenomena that we perceive. However, as with deduction, it is easy to reach false conclusions, focusing only on what we have seen or experienced. For example, the fact that every time we see a swan it is white can lead us to think that all swans are white, although they also exist in black.

3. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

This type of reasoning or thinking is the basis of scientific knowledge, being one of the closest to reality and to the verification of the premises which are established based on observation.

It starts from the observation of the reality of a series of particular cases to generate a hypothesis, from which in turn possible consequences or interpretations of what is observed will be deduced. These, in turn, must be falsifiable and empirically contrasted to verify their veracity.

This type of reasoning is considered one of the most complex and adult (Piaget, for example, associates it with the last stage of development and considers it typically adult despite the fact that many adults may not have it).

This does not necessarily mean that they always come up with valid results, being a type of reasoning that is also sensitive to biases. An example of this type of reasoning can be found, for example, in the discovery of penicillin and its transformation into an antibiotic.

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4. Transductive reasoning

This type of reasoning is based on that of combine different information separated from each other to establish an argument, belief, theory or conclusion. In reality, they tend to link specific or particular information without generating any kind of principle or theory and without actually looking for a check.

It is considered typical of early childhood, when we are still unable to establish a reasoning that links causes and effects and we can come to associate elements that have nothing to do with it.

An example of this type of reasoning can be found in the type of reflection that children usually do, who may come to think, for example, that it is snowing because they have behaved well that day.

Other types of reasoning

These are some of the most important types of reasoning, but there are other types depending on how they are classified. For example, we can find logical or non-logical reasoning (depending on whether it is used or not in such a way that the conclusions are coherent and extractable from the premises), valid or invalid reasoning (depending on whether the conclusion is correct or not) or even reasoning linked to certain professions or fields of knowledge, such as the doctor or clinical.

Bibliographic references:

• Higueras, B. and Muñoz, J.J. (2012). Basic Psychology. CEDE Preparation Manual PIR, 08. CEDE: Madrid.
• Peirce, C.S. (1988). The man, a sign (Peirce's pragmatism). Criticism, Barcelona: 123-141.
• Polya, G. (1953). Mathematics and plausible reasoning. Ed. Tecnos. Madrid.