Theories of human intelligence

Being smart is good. It is something that everyone knows, since having a high level of intelligence helps us to deal effectively with different events in life.

However… What exactly is being smart? What do we mean by intelligence? When answering these questions, doubts appear, the answer not being something simple or insubstantial.

In fact, the study of intelligence is a complex phenomenon that has been explored extensively and frequent from psychology, having a large number of ways to understand what and how is the intelligence and having raised numerous theories of human intelligence throughout history.

• Related article: "Brain Plasticity (or Neuroplasticity): What is it?"

Intelligence: a complex concept

In a generic way and without going into detail regarding what is part of it, we can consider intelligence as the capacity or set of Mainly cognitive capacities that allow us to adapt to the environment, solve the problems that it poses and even anticipate them successfully. However, the different authors who have tried and studied intelligence have found different definitions of this concept

, some contradicting while others are complementary.

When carrying out these studies, different approaches have been used, some having a more experimental, genetic or functional approach. One of the approaches has focused on determining the components of intelligence in order to understand it, this being the approach of factorial theories on which this article is based.

Two large groups of theories

Although as we have said there are various ways of classifying the huge variety of theories regarding what we consider intelligence, one of the clearest is the one that is most divisive between the different conceptualizations: if intelligence is one or, on the contrary, there are several Intelligence types.

A unitary intelligence

The first studies concerning intelligence and intellectual capacity worked under the assumption that intelligence is a single general, unchangeable and determined ability genetically. Through these theories have been elaborated psychometric tests that assess intelligence based on its reflection in standardized tests, measuring through them the intellectual quotient or IQ. According to these theories, then, intelligence was unifactorial

Capability set

There are other theories that state that intelligence It is not a single ability, but rather a set of skills and skills independent of each other. This explains why there are geniuses in some aspects such as music and art that have a logical capacity limited, or intellectual eminences who are unable to project such knowledge or understand the reactions foreign. It is this type of theories, multifactorial, they are used to create specific intelligence tests depending on which skills are most interesting to measure. Without e, however, it must be taken into account that currently the scientific context is that intelligence in the singular is an entity by itself, although with "ramifications".

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Main theoretical proposals

Whether it is considered a single or multiple capacity, the truth is that the research in this regard has been extensive and has allowed the construction of various theories. Some of the most considered throughout history are the following.

The name of Alfred Binet is especially known for having been the creator of the first intelligence measurement scale. This author, who considered intelligence a unique ability, was one of the first to explore the concept mental age as the age at which the majority of subjects are capable of performing or solving a problem determined. He believed that skills and abilities could be improved with education and training.

The concept of mental age would be used by this author as a measure of intelligence. After him, William Stern would link this mental age to chronological age In order to be able to evaluate in a comparative way the level of intellectual development and finally with all this Terman would end up creating the concept of IQ.

2. Spearman's bifactorial theory

One of the first theories of intelligence, Spearman proposes in his bifactorial theory of intelligence that there is a general intellectual capacity or G factor, which is common to all the activities we carry out.

However, depending on the type of activity we do, we will have to apply specific skills to bring it to fruition, specific capabilities that are called Factor s. While the g factor is inherited and unchangeable, specific skills would be improvable through learning and education.

One of the best known theories of intelligence is that of Raymond Cattell. In his theory, this author interprets, partly based on the bifactorial theory, that intellectual capacity is configured by two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized. While fluid intelligence corresponds to reasoning and the general ability to adapt in novel situations, without learning influencing the performance carried out, crystallized intelligence refers to the ability to apply learned knowledge throughout life.

On the other hand, Cattell did not believe that the g factor was a reflection of a natural process that actually occurs in the human brain, but that it would simply be a statistical product caused by the fact that when measuring it is not possible to isolate well the actually existing processes.

He also explores its development throughout life, stating that crystallized intelligence varies throughout life, increasing with the accumulation of experience, while fluid intelligence would be fixed after brain maturation during adolescence.

A type of theory that has also worked in the field of intelligence is that of hierarchical models, whose main representative is Philip Edward Vernon. These models are based on the idea that specific factors (those of the specific activities that we carry out out) are the bases of superior capacities, which form hierarchies until reaching the capacity or intelligence general. The last two divisions before reaching the g factor would be the verbal-educational and spatial-motor factors, which the author links to a specific hemisphere.

In addition to this, Vernon's model proposes that intelligence can be understood in three parts: A, B and C. Intelligence A understands intelligence as the possibility to learn and adapt, intelligence B corresponds to level of ability demonstrated in behavior and intelligence C refers to the score obtained in tests of intelligence.

As we have previously indicated, not all authors agreed that intelligence was a unique ability, there are authors who considered mental ability a composite element and multifactorial. Louis Leon Thurstone did not believe in the existence of a general factor of intelligence, but rather that different independent factors in their operation but linked to each other, they allow to guide behavior in order to be able to cope with the demands of the environment.

For this reason he developed the theory of primary mental abilities, one of the first multifactorial theories of the intelligence, in which he, through factorial analysis, found various skills that allow the correct adaptation to the half. Specifically Thurstone refers to the abilities of verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, memory, spatial capacity, numerical capacity, perceptual agility / speed and logical reasoning.

Another of the authors who opposed the idea of ​​a single intelligence was Joy Paul Guilford. This author presents a theory of intelligence based on a three-dimensional model, in which intellectual operations, contents and products of the intellect are taken into account when evaluating any intellectual factor from a point of view similar to that of cognitivism.

The contents of the intellect would refer to the type of information with which the intellect operates from stimuli, which may be figurative, symbolic, semantic or behavioral content.

Mental operations are understood by the processes from which the information is workedThese operations being cognition, memory, evaluation, and convergent and divergent production. Finally, mental operations reflect a series of results, which can take the form of units of information, classes or concepts, relationships, systems, information transformations and a work of association or implication between stimuli and information.

In addition to this operational consideration of mental processes, the author links intelligence to the ability to generate new strategies and solutions to the problems posed beyond the typical ones, however useful they have been manifested. Thus, intelligence it is also related to creativity and divergent thinking.

We cannot fail to see that the theories set forth focus largely on how intelligence is structured as something internal, regardless of where it is applied. Robert J. Sternberg also took this fact into account, elaborating his triarchic theory from which it is considered that there are three types of intelligence.

The first of these is analytical intelligence, which corresponds to the traditional idea of ​​intelligence as well as the ability to acquire, encode and store information, being able to carry out a theoretical analysis of the situation.

The second of Sternberg's intelligences is practical intelligence, it refers to the capacity for contextualization, that is, the ability to select the most adaptive and appropriate behavior or strategy based on the needs and resources derived from the half. Theoretically, it would be very similar to the crystallized intelligence that Cattell and other authors proposed from it.

Finally, there is one more intelligence for Sternberg, creative intelligence addressed in its experiential subtheory Through which we have the ability to deal with novel situations by working and developing strategies based on the information acquired throughout life.

8. Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

Howard Gardner has been a critical figure with the idea of ​​the presence of a single intelligence and the fact that it can be measured by IQ. In fact, it must be taken into account that in classic intelligence tests, abilities are essentially logical and verbal, not observing the importance of other capacities when it comes to being able to adapt to the half.

This author considers that it is not possible to speak of a single skill qualifying as intelligence. He considers that intellectual capacity and performance are due to a conglomeration of mental abilities common in all to a greater or lesser extent, establishing various types of intelligence to be applied in different contexts. These "intelligences" that would hide behind what we normally consider intelligence would actually be mental processes parallel to each other, unrelated beyond the ability to lead to useful behaviors depending on the new challenges we face. we face.

Specifically, although he is open to the possibility that there are more, Gardner highlights new; logical-mathematical, linguistic, kinetic-corporal, intrapersonal, interpersonal, spatial, musical, naturalistic intelligence.

However, in recent years Howard Gardner has pointed out that this classification would only represent one proposal, and that others may be equally valid. On the other hand, this theory is not the most accepted by the scientific community, which still considers that the intelligence can be considered a psychological construct without radical subdivisions that dilute its existence.

• You can learn more about Gardner's theory in this article: "Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences"

Other theories

There are many other theoretical proposals of intelligence. For example, the emotional intelligenceposed by Daniel Goleman it is a concept increasingly used among the general population.

This theory considers that the ability to identify, manage, modify and manipulate one's own and other's emotions are a form of intelligence to take into account. At present, social intelligence is also being discussed, although it could even be included within interpersonal intelligence.

Bibliographic references:

• Hernangómez, L. and Fernández, C. (2012). Personality and differential psychology. CEDE Preparation Manual PIR, 07. CEDE: Madrid.
• Legg, S.; Hutter, M. (2007). Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence. Minds and Machines. 17 (4): 391–444.
• Martin, M. (2007). Historical and conceptual analysis of the relationships between intelligence and reason. Spain: University of Malaga.
• Trewavas, A. (2005). Green plants as intelligent organisms. Trends in Plant Science. 10 (9): pp. 413 - 419.