The 15 functions of language, explained and with examples

The main function of language is to communicate, however, depending on the type of statement, how it is composed and the purpose behind it, we can talk about different functions of language.

There are many models that appeared throughout the 20th century to specify what the functions of language were. Great linguists such as Roman Jakobson, John Searle, J. L. Austin among others proposed their own models.

Then we are going to expose the main models on language functions, explaining what functions they consider to exist and giving some examples.

• Related article: "The 28 types of communication and their characteristics"

What are the functions of language?

We could define language functions as the different roles for which language is used, that is, the different purposes for which we emit a certain sentence, be it written or oral. The main function of human language is to communicate, however, our type of communication allows us to operate in different ways depending on the type of message that you want to transmit or the type of response that we want to generate in our receiver.

There are several models of the functions of language that have been proposed throughout the 20th century. Next we will see these different models and what specific language functions they speak about.

Language functions according to Karl Bühler

One of the first models to talk about the functions of language we have in the case of Karl Bühler, model of 1918. This linguist postulated that there were only three functions:

1. Symbolic or representative function

The symbolic function focuses on referential communication, talking about things, beings and relationships in the real world or possible imaginary worlds, of which account or report objectively using symbols. It is the main function of language, since it is the one that transmits more extensive information. It is the only specific function of the human being.

2. Symptomatic or expressive function

The symptomatic or expressive function refers to the ability to communicate and express feelings, making use of what in linguistics has been called symptoms (emotional expressions).

3. Signaling or appealing function

Through the pointing or appealing function, the interlocutor is influenced by issuing orders, commands, suggestions or questions. These sentences, which can be imperative, wishful and interrogative, are called signs.

These three functions can be given by means of non-linguistic signs and, as we said, only the referential function is specifically human, since only people can objectively describe a real or hypothetical situation. The other two also occur in animal communication, since other species can emit feelings (show fear, sadness, hostility ...) and orders and commands (to drive an intruder into his territory by barking, to make sexual advances in order to pair...)

Language functions according to Roman Jakobson

One of the most famous and widespread models is that of the language functions proposed by Roman Jakobson in 1958, stating that there were six of the aforementioned functions and classified them according to the use of language that he has in the communicative act.

1. Appellate or conative function

The appealing function occurs when the sender issues a message from which he expects a response, action or reaction from his interlocutor. It receives the qualifier of "appellative" while the issuer appeals to a receiver, that is, it is used with the purpose of attracting attention. It can be recognized in everyday life, as well as in advertising and political propaganda.

The appellative function usually uses the following elements: the vocative (calling someone by name or a pronoun), the imperative mood (giving orders) and the interrogative mood (asking questions). Appellative expressions are the grammatical forms of interrogations, exhortations, orders, instructions, threats, and requests, to give just a few examples.

Examples of expressions with appellative function:

• Manuel, can you help me with the shopping bags?
• Did you make the food?
• Put on your mask!
• Wash your hands before entering the establishment.
• Buy 100% organic and organic vegan milk.
• Vote for the pan-European party. Vote for Europe!

2. Referential, representative or informative function

The referential function is one in which the sender elaborates messages related to his environment or objects external to the communicative act, that is, he describes the world. It allows us to transmit information and characteristics of everything that makes up our reality, such as objects, animals, people, events and actions.

This function is characteristic of informative contexts, scientific discourses and informative documents, all of them focused on transmitting knowledge, although it is also used constantly in daily life.

Among the main linguistic resources used in the referential function we have deictics, which are words that serve to point to specific people, spaces or situations (we, that, this, today, Yesterday...); the denotative mode, referring to the main meaning of the words; nouns and verbs that make known the information that is described; the enunciative intonation and the verb tense in the indicative.

Examples of referential expressions:

• Rubén has arrived.
• They are my brothers.
• Paris is the capital of France.
• I have broken my right leg.
• Bees are haplodiploid organisms.
• Tomorrow is Thursday.

3. Emotional, expressive or symptomatic function

The emotional function, as its name suggests, It is used for the purpose of communicating and transmitting feelings, emotions, moods or wishes of the issuer. Although in this function there are representative or referential elements, what stands out the most and prevails about them are the expression of emotion.

Normally, the person referred to in phrases with expressive function is the sender himself, which is why it is normal to use the first singular person ("I am depressed"), although there are also plural ("We are dismayed") or even personal ("What a beautiful day it is today!"). In addition to using the first person, subjunctive verbs, interjections, and exclamatory sentences are often used.

Examples of emotional function:

• My leg hurts!
• I am not comfortable with this situation.
• I am satisfied and happy!
• I miss you.
• I'm sorry that Maradona died!

4. Poetic or aesthetic function

The poetic function It occurs when we communicate something but with an aesthetic purpose, trying to make it sound beautiful and with a certain playful air. In this function, more importance is given to how the sentence is constructed rather than to its content and meaning.

The care of the form itself is taken into special consideration and rhetorical figures are used, this function being characteristic of literary texts and, also, popular forms of discourse. Among them we find popular sayings, tongue twisters, novels, stories, fables, songs, jokes, riddles ...

Among the different rhetorical or literary figures that can be identified in expressions with an aesthetic function we find:

• Metaphors
• Similes
• Hyperbole
• Metonymies
• Hyperbaton
• Ellipse
• Descriptions
• Ironies

Examples of poetic function:

• Three sad tigers eat wheat in a wheat field. (Tongue twister)
• Gold seems, silver is not, who does not know a fool is. (Riddle)
• Every cloud has a silver lining. (Saying)
• The man was tall and so skinny that he always seemed in profile (Hyperbole)

Each song (poem by Federico García Lorca)

I did not want. I didn't want to tell you anything. I saw in your eyes. two crazy little trees. Of breeze, of laughter and of gold. They wiggled. I did not want. I didn't want to tell you anything.

5. Phatic or contact function

The phatic or contact function is focused on validating the communication channel between two interlocutors. This function is used to start, maintain and end a conversation.

Examples of sentences with phatic function:

• Tell me.
• Hello good day.
• I hear you, yes.
• Oh! Wow…
• I understand…
• Until next time.

6. Metalinguistic function

Finally, within Jakobson's model we have the metalinguistic function. It refers to the use of language to explain the language code, that is, it is the language we use to describe and reflect on the language itself. This function is what is activated when aspects of grammar, the meaning of a word are explained or when speaking about the functions of the language itself. Indeed, in this article we are using the metalinguistic function.

Examples of metalinguistic function:

• Before the letter "p" and "b" is written "m" in Spanish.
• The metalinguistic function is the language we use to describe and reflect on the linguistic code itself.
• The longest word in Spanish is “electroencephalographer”, which has 23 letters.
• What does "hinny" mean?
• Sharp words are accentuated when they end in a vowel or the letters "n" or "s".
• What do you mean by saying "you can't"?

According to the functional systemic linguistics of Michael Halliday

The functional systemic linguistics of Michael Halliday has questioned several proposals, among them those of structuralist linguists, such as that of Ferdinand de Saussure and Louis Hjelmslev, or that of generativists like Noam Chomsky, who until then had not allowed a study of the combination "language-speech" simultaneously.

Halliday raises this discussion in his book "Language as Social Semiotics" (1978) in which he formulates a new point in linguistics at that time that integrates the sociocultural component as a key to understanding language, placing the context as an intrinsic part of this. He considers that language is an aspect that occurs both at intra and interorganic levels, unlike the predecessor proposals that isolated the linguistic phenomenon.

In its particular grammar it postulates various functions of language, which are summarized below.

1. Ideative function

The ideative function represents the relationship between the speaker and the real world that surrounds him., including the issuer itself. This function allows to structure, determine and understand the world and expresses the individual's worldview and experience.

2. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is what allows establishing and maintaining relationships between people, that is, social relationships. It is interactive and serves to express different social functions and roles, including them in communication.

3. Textual function

The textual function is instrumental for the previous two. Through this function, the language connects with the situation in which it is being used., allowing to establish coherent relationships between the parts of a text or spoken discourse and its adaptation to the specific situation in which it occurs.

According to the theory of speech acts

The theory of speech acts by John Langshaw Austin and John Searle, exposed in their books "How to make things with words ”(1962) and“ Speech acts ”(1969) is a model that expands the scheme exposed by Jakobson. In this model, we do not speak of functions in themselves, but of speech acts or activities.

It is very similar to the Jakobson model, agreeing on some points but changing the names. The representative function was called the locutionary act, this is what is said; to the expressive illocutionary act, which is what is done at the same time as it is said; and the conative is referred to as a perlocutionary act, which is what is achieved by saying it.

1. Speech act

The locutory acts consist of issuing a statement, that is, pronouncing some words, whatever. It is a propositional preaching activity, while the statement consists of simply saying something and preaching something of that something. So that we understand, locutionary phrases would be the following:

• The sky is blue.
• It hurts.
• I have had spaghetti.
• Congratulations!
• Your mother called you.

He is simply telling us that "the mother" of our interlocutor has called. We only give information, we do not show any kind of intention nor do we intend to change the behavior of our recipient.

Within the locutionary acts we can speak of three different types of acts:

• Phonic activity: the activity of making sounds.
• Phatic activity: the activity of emitting words.
• Retic activity: emit words forming a grammatical sequence with a specific meaning.

2. Illocutionary act

The illocutionary acts They are intentional and are carried out with a specific communicative function, such as affirming, promising, suggesting ... That is, the act is being done at the same time that the statement is being emitted. They are related to the psychological modality or attitude of the speaker. The expressions through which an illocutionary act is being performed are hundreds.

• I congratulate you!
• I declare you husband and wife.
• I curse you and your whole family.
• I think that things should not be done that way.
• I want to eat a wild boar.

3. Perlocutionary act

A perlocutionary act is one that provokes a reaction in the interlocutor, such as convincing, interesting, calming ... Thus, it affects the actions, beliefs and feelings of the listener, modifying their behavior and thinking. Some examples, both explicit and more subtle, are as follows (the hidden meaning is put in parentheses):

• Call your mother. (= I order you to call your mother).
• We should hurry, we're going to be late.
• She is running late (= let's go).
• She called your mother (= you should call her).
• Let's start putting this puzzle together.

Bibliographic references:

• Berruto, Gaetano J. (1979) Sociolinguistics. Mexico, Fund for Economic Culture.
• Bühler, K. (1934). Theory of language. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1985.
• Gil, J. (2001) Introduction to the linguistic theories of the 20th century. Santiago, Melusina-Ril.
• Halliday, M. TO. K. (1978). Language as social semiotics. The social interpretation of language and meaning. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1982.
• Jakobson, R. (1963). Essais de linguistique générale. Paris: Minuit, 1963.