The 8 theories of altruism: why do we help others for nothing?

Giving yourself to others, helping the other without expecting anything in return. Although today it is not so common since we are immersed in an increasingly individualistic culture, one can still observe from time to time the existence of a large number of acts of spontaneous generosity and selfless help to the other. And not just humans: altruistic acts have been observed in a large number of animals of species as different as chimpanzees, dogs, dolphins or bats.

The reason for this type of attitude has been the subject of debate and research from sciences such as psychology, ethology or biology, generating a large number of theories about altruism. It is about them that we are going to talk throughout this article, highlighting some of the best known.

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Altruism: Basic Definition

We understand altruism as that pattern of conduct or behavior characterized by the search for the well-being of others without expecting it to generate any kind of benefit to us

, despite the fact that such action may even harm us. The well-being of others is therefore the element that motivates and guides the behavior of the subject, whether we are talking about a specific act or something stable over time.

Altruistic acts are generally well regarded socially and allow to generate well-being in others, something that affects the bonding between individuals in a positive way. However, at a biological level, altruism supposes an action that in principle not directly beneficial to survival and even that it can put it at risk or cause death, something that has made different researchers wonder why this type of behavior arises.

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Theories about altruism: two great points of view

Why a living being may become willing to sacrifice his life, cause him some damage or simply use his own resources and efforts in one or more actions that they do not suppose you any profit It has been the subject of extensive research from different disciplines, generating a large number of theories. Among all of them, we can highlight two large groups in which the theories about altruism can be inserted

Pseudo-altruistic theories

This type of theories about altruism is one of the most important and most widely considered throughout history. They are called pseudo-altruists since what they propose is that deep down altruistic acts do pursue some type of personal benefit, even at an unconscious level.

This search would not be of a direct and tangible benefit from the performance, but the motivation behind the altruistic act would be to obtain internal rewards such as self-approval, the feeling of doing something considered good by someone else, or following one's own code moral. Too the expectation of future favors would be included by the beings to whom we provide help.

Purely altruistic theories

This second group of theories considers that altruistic behavior is not due to the intention (conscious or not) of obtaining benefits, but rather part of the direct intention to generate well-being to the other. It would be elements such as empathy or the search for justice that would motivate the action. These types of theories usually take into account how relatively utopian it is to find total altruism, but they value the existence of personality traits tending to them.

Some of the main explanatory proposals

The previous two are the two main existing approaches to the operation of altruism, but within both there are a large number of theories. Among them, some of the most notable are the following.

1. Reciprocal altruism

Theory that from the approach of pseudoaltruism advocates that what really moves altruistic behavior is the expectation that the aid provided will subsequently lead to equivalent behavior in the assisted, in such a way that Way that in the long run the chances of survival are enhanced in situations where the resources themselves may not be sufficient.

Likewise, whoever receives the aid benefits from it at the same time as tends to feel indebted to the other. The possibility of interaction between both individuals is also promoted and favored, something that favors socialization between unrelated subjects. you have the feeling of being in debt.

2. Normative theory

This theory is very similar to the previous one, with the exception that it contemplates that what moves the helper is the moral / ethical code or values, their structuring and the feeling of obligation towards others derived from them. It is also considered a theory of the pseudoaltruism approach, since what is sought with the help of the other is to obey the social norm and the expectations of a world together that have been acquired during socioculturally, avoiding the guilt of not helping and obtaining the gratification of having done what we consider correct (thus increasing our self-consideration).

3. Theory of stress reduction

Also part of the pseudoaltruistic approach, this theory considers that the motive of helping the other is the reduction of the state of discomfort and agitation generated by the observation of the suffering of another person. The absence of action would generate guilt and increase the discomfort of the subject, while helping will reduce the discomfort felt by the altruistic subject himself by reducing that of the other.

4. Hamilton's kinship selection

Other existing theories is that of Hamilton, who considers that altruism is generated derived from the search for the perpetuation of genes. This eminently biological load theory values ​​that in nature many of the altruistic behaviors are directed towards members of our own family or with whom we have some kind of blood relationship.

The act of altruism would allow our genes to survive and reproduce, even though our own survival could be impaired. It has been observed that a large part of altruistic behaviors is generated in different animal species.

5. Cost-benefit calculation model

This model considers the existence of a calculation between costs and benefits of both acting and not acting at the same time. time to perform an altruistic act, specifying the existence of fewer risks than possible benefits to get. The observation of the suffering of others will generate tension in the observer, something that will cause the calculation process to be activated. The final decision will also be influenced by other factors, such as the degree of connection with the subject who needs help.

6. Autonomous altruism

A model more typical of the purely altruistic approach, this proposal assumes that it is the emotions that generate the altruistic act: the Emotion towards the subject in distress or towards the situation causes the basic principles of reinforcement and reinforcement to be disregarded. punishment. This model, worked among others by Karylowski, takes into account that for altruism to be really such it is necessary that attention is focused on the other (If it were focused on oneself and the sensations it provokes, we would be faced with the product of normative theory: an altruism due to the fact of feeling good about oneself).

7. Empathy-altruism hypothesis

This hypothesis, by Bateson, also considers altruism as something pure and not biased by the intention of obtaining any type of reward. The existence of various factors to take into account is assumed, the first step being being able to perceive the need for help from others, the differentiation between their present situation and that which their well-being would imply, the salience of said need and the focus on the other. This will generate the appearance of empathy, putting ourselves in the place of the other and experiencing emotions towards him.

This will motivate us to seek their well-being, calculating the best way to help the other person (something that could include leaving the help to others). Although help can generate some type of social or interpersonal reward but that not the goal of the aid itself.

8. Empathy and identification with the other

Another hypothesis that considers altruism as something pure proposes the fact that what generates altruistic behavior is the identification with the other, in a context in which the other is perceived as in need of help and through identification with him we forget the boundaries between the self and the person in need. This will end up causing us to seek their well-being, in the same way that we would seek ours.

Bibliographic references:

• Batson, CD. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a socio-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; England.
• Feigin, S.; Owens, G. and Goodyear-Smith, F. (2014). Theories of human altruism: a systematic review. Annals of Neuroscience and Psychology, 1 (1). Available in: http://www.vipoa.org/journals/pdf/2306389068.pdf.
• Herbert, M. (1992). Psychology in Social Work. Madrid: Pyramid.
• Karylowski, J. (1982). Two types of altruistic behavior: Doing good to feel good or to make the other feel good. In: Derlega VJ, Grzelak J, editors. Cooperation and helping behavior: theories and research. New York: Academic Press, 397-413.
• Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development. The psychology of moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 2.
• Trivers, R.L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46: 35-57.